POLITICAL DINAMYCS AND PROGRESIVITAS OF NORDICS COUNTRIES

The Nordic countries which have population  25,382,411 (as of 2009) and consist of  Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden and their associated territories which include the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland. Scandinavia is sometimes used as a synonym for the Nordic countries.[1] The term of Scandinavia is sometimes used—though not consistently—as a synonym for the Nordic countries, although within the Nordic countries the terms are considered distinct.[2] The Faroe Islands and Iceland are "Scandinavian" in the sense that they were settled by Scandinavians and speak Scandinavian languages, but geographically they are not part of Scandinavia. Having once been a part of Sweden, Finland has been significantly influenced by Swedish culture and part of it is geographically within Scandinavia, whereas the Finnish language is not related to the Scandinavian languages. Greenland was settled by the Norse, and is currently part of the Danish realm, with the Danish language spoken by nearly all inhabitants, while geographically it is part of North America. In geology, the term for the land area which lies above sea level on the Baltic shield is Fennoscandia.

Politically, Nordic countries do not form a separate entity, but they cooperate in the Nordic Council. As a sub-regional form of the Europe, the Nordic countries has the most interesting and distinctive achievement as the most democratic country in the world. The research that has been done by The Economist shows that they hold the five highest rank position in the most democratic country.[3] Their political culture has many influence of Christianity and the culture of strong and democratic monarchy (except the Nordics, Finland and Iceland that gained their independence from Russia and Denmark then become republic) take a deep role in constructing the stable government in the Nordic countries which is identical to the Confucianism in the East Asian social system.[4] Obedience to the higher class like royal and noble families stabilize the system in almost all circumstances, but this kind of obedience are balanced through good governance in almost near perfect democracy system in parliamentary system. This perfect check and balances system between the obedience of the people to the monarch and good and democratic governance provided by the monarch construct good and stable government system in Scandinavia countries.

This area is heterogeneous, with three unrelated language groups, the North Germanic branch of Indo-European languages and the Baltic-Finnic and Sami branches of Uralic languages as well as the Eskimo-Aleut language Greenlandic spoken in Greenland. The Nordic countries are characterized by similar structures of their societies and cultural traits. This results not only from similar environmental realities and thus traditional livelihoods but also from a shared history. When the Nordic society will go to some where which is located intra region, they will not get difficulty about passport because they have passport union.[5]

The Nordic countries share similar traits in the policies implemented under the postwar period, especially in the socioeconomic area. All Nordic countries have large tax-funded public welfare sectors and extensive socialist legislation.[6] In most cases, this is due to the political ambitions of the many Social Democrat governments that came to power during the interwar period in each of the Nordic countries. The Economist also said that their effectiveness of democracy implementation cause some economic success.[7] From this adjustment shows that there are good relation between  functions of governments, and the political participations by the citizens to get prosperity and progressiveness in political and economic aspect.

In Internal politic of Nordic circumstances, the government type can be divided into two systems, the constitutional monarchy  and the republic system. But despite the differences in government type, they all are adopting the democratic-parliamentary system except  Finland that mix the presidential and parliamentary system, but they all are having parliamentary system in their governments.[8] The Norse constitution that constructed in 1814 was much affected by the United States constitution in 1776 and French Revolution in 1789.[9] That was the turning point of an absolute monarchy into democratic constitutional monarchy. The sovereignty of the parliament in Denmark occurred in 1901 that more or less affected by the government reformation in Denmark in 1814. Different with the Norwegian and Danish political system whose changes were much affected by the Americans and French revolution, the political power changes in Sweden was more affected by the internal constellation of politics that made the parliamentary system into two chambers (bicameral) but later in 1971 the parliamentary system became unilateral. The Finland and Iceland are also adopted parliamentary system although Finland’s mixed  presidential system (in minor aspect) into the parliamentary system.

The Nordic region has a political dimension in the joint official bodies called the Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers.[10] In this context, several aspects of the common market as in the European Union have been implemented decades before the EU implemented them. Intra-Nordic trade is not covered by the CISG, but by local law. In the European Union, the Northern dimension refers to external and cross-border policies covering the Nordic countries, the Baltic countries, and Russia. The obstacle which is often faced by The Nordic countries that undergoing some overlapping cooperation member between European Union, Euro zone, and NATO, so the policy sometimes can not done maximally.[11]

From explanation above, the conclusion is that there are many progressiveness which Nordic countries get in politic and economic aspect which can be good sample for the other countries but their membership in international institution is better if it is not overlapping. Besides that there are many countries which have different culture and political background, their intention to access in EU get some obstacle in order that is not easy to realize European integration.

References

CIA World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2009-04-23 accessed from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gl.html#People

J Svennung,. (1963). Scandinavia und Scandia. “Lateinisch-nordische Namenstudien”. Almqvist & Wiksell/Harrassowitz

The King’s Constitutional Role. http://www.kongehuset.no/c27300/seksjonstekst/vis.html?tid=29977 accessed on October 12^th 2009

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[1] CIA World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2009-04-23 accessed from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gl.html#People

[2] Ibid CIA

[3] J Svennung,. (1963). Scandinavia und Scandia. “Lateinisch-nordische Namenstudien”. Almqvist & Wiksell/Harrassowitz

[4] Ibid

[5] Opcit CIA

[6] Opcit CIA

[7] The King’s Constitutional Role. http://www.kongehuset.no/c27300/seksjonstekst/vis.html?tid=29977 accessed on October 12^th 2009

[8] Ibid The King

[9] Opcit The King

[10] Opcit The King

[11] Opcit The King

Internal Politic and Population

Historically, fifth republic of France has anarchy situation background from fourth republic because impact of  there are many irresponsibility parties so  the cabinet period is not longer. The root of instability is many parties in deputy chamber that make coalition in order to become majority in cabinet. So these problem has similar with the last problem overage.

When France want to move from one regime to another regime, it always marked bloody conflict and violent. To solve this problem, de Gaulle has realized that strong executive leader is needed by France. The strong executive leader can be described by ability to handle parliament. State custom is like cabinet’s responsibility and separation of President  and prime minister institution still pursued. In the other hand, de Gaulle believes that political stability is determined by people support. This belief shows on  1946 when fourth republic parliament held referendum for new constitution and the result are 36,8 % pro, 32,4%  contra, and 30,8% abstain. Charles de Gaulle said that constitution is not longer if only get more one third votes.

This fact shows that President position is stronger than parliament but this is not means authoritarian because this authority of president is limited by people support. France revolution experience becomes good lesson about important role of people for country. Monarch absolute system from Bourbon dynasty must ruin because of that.  Parliament position still maintain because their function as people representation which have right to fight back of king order. Parliament also  become initiator of France revolution but in third and fourth republic parliament also make government become instability. This background encourage de Gaulle to make combination government system between parliamentary and presidential. Beside that President still need parliament support in policy implementation.

France parliament is a bicameral legislative institution which consist of national assembly and senate. National assembly deputy represent local constituent and direct elected for five years. The Assembly has power to disperse cabinet, and majority of assembly delegate to determine government choice. Senator is elected by electoral college for six years.

France has two blocs extreme political parties. The left bloc is social party which has policy state centric over the years. They are still more oriented towards the public sector than policies put forward by equivalent parties in other European countries.  The right bloc is Union pour la majorite presidentelle (UMP), which formed on 2002.

Population and Issue

In 1999 census, the population result is  64.3 million people, in 2003, France's natural population growth (excluding immigration) was responsible for almost all natural population growth in the European Union. Most of belief people are roman catholic 83%-88%, and the other religion are Protestant 2%, Jewish 1%, Muslim 5%-10%, unaffiliated 4%. French language is 100% used in their daily life. 

Issues which are happened there
like population below poverty line for about 6,5% (2000) beside that there are some people   living with HIV/AIDS:120,000 (2003 est.), whereas France is well known by wealthiest and healthiness country. The other problem is migration from East Europe and Africa, to solve this problem France Government make immigration policy to stop it.

The other issue is about race and religion discrimination. There are rule about secularism, which forbid to wear religion symbol. But in reality, French government take Zionist as golden boy and they have strategic position in government.

WELFARE STATES AND ITS CONCEPT

At the first time, this concept is sparked off by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) with his  idea to reform law, constitution role, and social research for developing social policy  which make him called as “welfare state father” (Suharto, 2006). Elements of a welfare system began to be constructed in parts of Western Europe from the late 19th century. The first country which uses this concept is United Kingdom (UK) at the second world war which is contrary with Nazi Germany state concept which use “warfare state.” Welfare state shows that UK commit to assure social protection for all citizens, not commit to conduct war (Suharto, 2006).

The welfare state function is an attempt to break away from the stigma of the Poor Law. It was not designed for the poor but it was supposed to offer social protection for everyone, to prevent people from becoming “poor” (Spicker, 2002). So, its concept shows government and countries’ role to the people which is based on equality concept of right and opportunity, smooth properties distribution, and public responsibility for inadequacy people in fulfilling their daily need not only material but also non material  like food, safety and happy condition, etc. Government intervention is needed especially their capacity to make decision, budget control and equip welfare aspects. To analyze the structure of a welfare system, intersections of class, race, and gender need to be taken into account. Thus, a profound analysis of a nation's welfare state calls for an extensive study of the social relations of that particular society- every person has different need to be welfare (http://tiss.zdv.uni-tuebingen.de).

To build European welfare competence and legitimacy, The European created EEC  in 1957 (signing the Treaty of Roma) to established the common market, social policy and also provided for economic cooperation, and reduction and eventual removal of customs barriers (Suharto, 2006). The terms also provided for the free movement of capital, goods, and labor between the member countries, together with common agricultural and trading. EEC also developed the cooperation and cohesive of Western European. In 1990s the social dimension had the agenda and that was gaining legitimacy due largely to the efforts of the European commission under the leadership of Jacques Delors. By the 1990s, social policy was gaining greater legitimacy but still with the aim of supporting economic integration during the process of EMU (Economic and Monetary Union). The social policy chapter was not written into the Maastricht Treaty due to the British government’s veto.

The institution of welfare systems aims at shielding individuals from the primary risks of industrial life. To a large extent, the economic forces of capitalism are beyond the control of individuals who nonetheless can be or have been thrown into poverty by the operating of the market economy.  While the welfare state is widely regarded as a means of containing the harms procured by the free market, it in turn transforms the face of advanced capitalism. Proponents of a neo-liberal regime blame the welfare state for inducing the same damages it is trying to correct, thus distorting the natural unfolding of capitalist processes. Karl Polany, on the other hand, asserts that the viability of capitalism itself depends on the protective rules and regulations which characterize a modern welfare state. As a matter of fact, people who advocate different market theories differ in their perceptions regarding the necessity and the competency of a welfare system (http://tiss.zdv.uni-tuebingen.de).

According to socialist economic theory, the welfare states endorses the de-commodification of workers (http://tiss.zdv.uni-tuebingen.de). In capitalism, workers transmute themselves into commodities by selling their labor power to property owners. The commodification of labor in turn produces class division and alienation.  Under an ideal welfare system, citizen can opt out of working when they feel the need to do so. In guaranteeing the provision of basic social and economic rights, the welfare state de-commodifies its citizen.  While the pursuit of de-commodification through the welfare state represents an unmistakably socialist idea, the welfare state in itself is not a purely socialist construction. Not only leftist, but also Catholic and liberal parties have promoted welfare programs throughout the development of modern democracies. Also authoritarian regimes on both the left and the right have pursued the advancement of various welfare policies. Many socioeconomic studies illustrate that welfare systems are an integral part of all political regimes once they reach a certain level of economic development, thus indicating the correlation between welfare-state development and economic and demographic growth independent of a state's political system. In western countries welfare state is often viewed as poison neutralizer of capitalism, that is negative effect of free trade economy system. Because of that, welfare state usually welfare state is called as compassionate capitalism. Even though this concept is normative ideology and theory of left, like Marxism, Socialism, and Democratic Social, but uniquely  this concept develop rapidly in democratic and capitalist countries not in socialist countries, for example in US, west Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and Scandinavian countries (Suharto, 2006). (Suharto, 2006).

Different states employ a variety of welfare programs, but the essence of the welfare state is similar across countries and political regimes. Like the other developmental approaches, welfare state system is not homogeneous and static but medley and dynamic which follow era progression. Welfare is already difficult to conceptualize within national context. It is more difficult still to define and delimit in the international arena. So to simplify, Soeharto (2006) classify welfare state into four  models:

1. Universal Model

Social care is given equally to the citizens. This model is often called as the Scandinavian Welfare States or ideal model which is represented by Swedish, Norway, Denmark, and Finland. Welfare state of Swedish is often viewed as more progress and advance model than UK, US, and Australia’s model. . In UK welfare state is also understood as the Poor Law so often appear stigma as aid for poor people whereas it is different because welfare state is focused on  social protection system of every people as realization of citizens right and state obligation (Suharto, 2006; Spicker, 2002). Target of welfare state is not only poor people but also all old, ladies, gentlemen, children, and rich people.

2. Work Merit Welfare States Model

Like first model but distribution of social care scheme is from three parties, Government, business environment, and labor. This model is used by Germany and Australia. Social care which is carried out by state is given to them who work and give contribution by social assurance scheme. This model is also called by Bismarck model because this first idea is found by Otto von Bismarck from  Germany.

3. Residual Model

This model is used by Anglo Saxon countries like US, UK, and New Zealand. Social care especially basic need is given to disadvantaged groups like old, deformity and poor people. There are three elements which mark this model in UK: minimum standard assurance, included minimum income; social protection in the emergency time, care giving as well as possible. This model is like universal model which give social care based on citizens right  and has broad range. But like implemented in UK, number of burden and social service is relatively smaller and short term than universal model. Social protection and service only give efficiently, tightly, and contemporarily.

4. Minimal Model

This model is generally used in South America like Spain, Italy, Chile, and Asia. This model is marked by government dismissal for very little social development. Welfare program and social assurance is given to state worker, army, and private worker who can pay premium.

There are some cases which relate with welfare state concept, like in European Union countries which is popular as successful welfare state (Suharto, 2006).   But, Hantrais (2007) find ambivalence between economy policy and welfare. It can not be separated with European integration process which shift states’ national sovereignty in that continent. Last time social welfare problem became affairs of every state, but presence of EEC at 1957 and then European Union, so legitimacy of system implementation became new problem itself. To solve this problem OMC offers a compromise solution in support of the interest of the Union and member states  by The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union which reaffirms the principles of national sovereignty in the area of social-welfare policy. Limitation of welfare state implementation is European Union as implementer of welfare has not been received generally by its member states so it is hard to control. Moreover there are many perspectives of welfare concept and theory from every country like I said above. In UK, Australia and New Zealand focused on social assurance which involve social security, healthy care, education, housing, and personal social services; in US usually  social assurance is given to poor, unemployment, and deformity people like in UK so it more suitable called as social “illfare” than social welfare and show that this term has been reversed. In the contrary, welfare state concept also has success. We can see in most of Scandinavian countries which have real progress as developed countries and stability in social, economy, and politic aspect

Conclusions

Welfare State is not only about economy aspect but also whole life aspect of citizenship like social, security, health, and other which is given to all citizens without look their background-rich, man, woman, young, old, or poor. In my opinion, it is different with prosperity term which only focus on economy aspect or poor law which care of disadvantaged groups like old, deformity and poor people.  So relevance of welfare state concept depends on every country policy by considering type of government and people condition, it is just choice concept not absolute doctrine which can change if it is needed because of era indictment. Maybe in US, welfare state has died because of globalizations but in Australia and New Zealand has good process precisely (Goodin 1999).  We can not deny if global economic development has implication of welfare state. Limit and state-nation strength fade more and more, tend to locality, independent organizations, civil society, supranational institutions like NAFTA and European Union and multinational corporations. International institution like World Bank and IMF sell economy and social policy to developing and East European Countries to minimize government dismissal, give selective and limitation social care and give social assurance to private party. Consequence logic of global tendencies and  strengthen of neoliberal ideology is critical to welfare state system is not suitable anymore as developmental approaches and cause many cases not only in European States but also other places.

Some criticism of welfare states concern the idea that a welfare state makes citizens dependent and less inclined to work. Certain studies indicate there is no association between economic performance and welfare expenditure in developed countries (Atkinson 1995) and that there is no evidence for the contention that welfare states impede progressive social development (Goodin 1999), compares the United States, which spends relatively little on social welfare (less than 17 per cent of GDP), with other countries which spend considerably more. This study claims that on some economic and social indicators the United States performs worse than the Netherlands, which has a high commitment to welfare provision. Even though many limitations and critics of this concept but it is still used by most of country in the world, especially in European countries so I can say this concept is success if there is failure in many states, it is caused by “mismodel or misimplementation”.

Referensi:

Atkinson, A. B.. 1995. Incomes and the Welfare State. Cambridge University Press

Hantrais, Linda. 2007. Welfare State.  

Paul Spicker.2002. Poverty and the Welfare State: Dispelling the Myths pp 6.

Pergher, Roberta. The Welfare State-A Commitment Against Violence. Accessed from http://tiss.zdv.uni-tuebingen.de at 5 January 2009

Goodin, R. E. et al. 1999, in The Real Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Cambridge University Press

Suharto, Edi. 2006. Peta dan Dinamika Welfare State di Beberapa Negara: Pelajaran Apa yang Bisa Dipetik untuk Membangun Indonesia?. Yogyakarta

EASTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE: URGENCY OF DEMOCRACY AND ACCESSION IN ERUPEAN UNION

There are many different ways to define Central and Eastern Europe. Central and Eastern Europe actually is not based on geographical classification but this term describing former communist states in Europe, after the collapse of the Iron Curtain in 1989/1990. In scholarly literature the abbreviations CEE are often used for this concept.[1] CEE includes all the Eastern bloc countries of the post-World War II border with the former Soviet Union, the independent states in former Yugoslavia, and the three Baltic states — Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania — that chose not to join the CIS with the other 12 former republics of the USSR.[2] The transition countries in Europe and Central Asia are thus classified today into two political-economic entities: CEE and CIS. The CEE countries are further subdivided by their accession status to the European Union (EU): the ten first-wave accession countries that joined the EU in May 2004 (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, and Slovenia) and the two second-wave accession countries that joined in January 2007 (Bulgaria, Romania). According to the World Bank, "the transition is over" for the 10 countries that joined the EU in 2004.[3]

For Democracy context, the states of CEE have undergone significant changes since 1989, following the collapse of the communist regimes.[4] Exactly, not only the democratize political system but also create market economies and state-building. For addition, these states undertook the arduous task of meeting the requirements laid down for entry into the European Union. If we compared between four decades ago when communist rule is conducted where there are many commonalities in one region especially in communist zone, but now after communist suffer from a loss power, there are many diversities which we can find although there are some commonalities but usually there is significant variety across the region.[5] It is one of evidence if democracy has exist in states of Eastern and Central European. Beside that it is also caused by diversity of historical experience, how the countries exited communism and the preferences of politicisians during the early transition period.

Democratisation which exist in Europe is not too similar with western country because it still young and required not just an overhaul of the institutional architecture of politics, but also formal and behavioral shifts to allow multy party democracy and civil society to flourish.[6] Institutional framework here is much more settled but still subject to change and society also undergoing a process of democratic learning. Voters’ expectation were raised in the early post communist years thanks in part to wild promises which politicians found difficult to fulfil. Equally in recent years new parties with vague programmes and lacking traditional ideological bases have come to the fore, promising to be more competent and less corrupt than the political elite. Such appeals tap into wide-spread feelings that politicians frequently put their own material interest and those of their associates, before the interests of their countries, especially in area such as privatization policy.

Nonetheless, although some of these new parties have the characteristics of these new parties have the characteristics of anti-system parties, few citizens question the legitimacy of the democratic system. There may be much nostalgia for the economic certainties of communism sections of the electorate, but there is not much appetite for a return to a pre 1989 political system.  EU accession was generally perceived by citizens and politicians to have been a necessary step, hence the acceptance to make certain sacrifices. But with EU membership achieved questions are being raised about what decisions need to be taken at the European level and which should remain or be returned to national government.

Economic reform is also debatable and become obstacle in political focus of CEE,  the countries of CEE still face the tasks of joining the Euro and the Schengen zone, but its difficulty become one of challenge to access and become member of EU.[7] After CEE get the success of this problem, CEE position is shift not just objects, but subjects of EU decision making. Now, the new member states from CEE have been active in trying to alter the EU’s foreign policy toward the East. By globalization era which can not be ignored the existence, i think that choice to access in EU as the best idea for CEE to get prosperity and development and let democracy problematic grow in a row with change of period and society readiness.

References

Z. Lerman, C. Csaki, and G. Feder. 2004. Agriculture in Transition: Land Policies and Evolving Farm Structures in Post-Soviet Countries, Lexington Books, Lanham, MD

J. Swinnen, ed. 1997. Political Economy of Agrarian Reform in Central and Eastern Europe, Ashgate, Aldershot.

Ibid. Swinnen

Haughton, Tim. 2007. Central and Eastern Europe in Colin Hay and Anand Menon (ed). European Politics. New York: Oxford Universty Press

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[1] Z. Lerman, C. Csaki, and G. Feder. 2004. Agriculture in Transition: Land Policies and Evolving Farm Structures in Post-Soviet Countries, Lexington Books, Lanham, MD

[2] J. Swinnen, ed. 1997. Political Economy of Agrarian Reform in Central and Eastern Europe, Ashgate, Aldershot.

[3] Ibid. Swinnen

[4] Haughton, Tim. 2007. Central and Eastern Europe in Colin Hay and Anand Menon (ed). European Politics. New York: Oxford Universty Press

[5] Ibid

[6] Op cit

[7] Opcit

European Union: Monetary, Money, Justice, and Citizens Actions

            European Union is interesting topic for every regional countries to be good example to know how economy integration in one regional can take place well. Historically, European Union is more focused in economy cooperation but the real background is politic factor, from avoid European war again to enlarge integration until new democracy country in Central and East Europe. Even though the purpose is politic, but the instrument which is used is economy because economy has lower effect to realize integration than politic itself or military.[1]

The most interesting European Union is not from one economy bloc but two,  European Economic Community (EEC) and European Free Trade Association (EFTA), in this progress naturally merge become one bloc economy. There are three important points in development of economic integration:
(1) Formation of Customs Union from 1958 to 1968 which break of tariff and non tariff trade intra European Union

 (2) One market program from 1986 to 1992 which break of non tariff barrier and liberalize capital flow in European Union.

(3) Integration of monetary and economy in most of all European Union currency members.[2]

European Union has strike policy in agriculture sector protection, by determine limitation (CAP) which make crops more expensive than domestic price. By developing technology, European Union shift from importer to exporter. In this condition European Union still maintain its CAP even become dilemma when must pervade domestic overproduction in maintaining price standard.  Agriculture policy is the most use up European Union budget and become important issue relating with fair distribution.  Economy bloc policy make domestic market bigger and compete to eliminate inefficient company at once. It cause national ego of economy bloc member appear to maintain national company by giving fund which make bias toward economy bloc policy itself. To avoid this, European Union implement limitations fund is permitted. In transnational trade, European Committee has legitimate to negotiate with outsider where external tariff which is decided is low but agriculture budget is four times bigger than industry sector.    

As reaction of American dollar domination and its influence to currency stability, European Union countries try to make new system which can guarantee their stability money.[3] Deutschmark as the stablest money at that time is used to page but it is fail. Finally, they intend to do monetary integration-euro- and fiscal policy. But because certain reason, not all member state can change their money to Euro, some of them because their own choice and other has not fulfill the requirement. Single currency is not early step but final of convergence process in which capability of member state to reach price stability and maintain it. 

The newest report is said that economy of European Union is decline more than predicted before because of global crisis.[4] This tendency is looked from Gross Domestic Income which decrease until 0.3 percent. To perceive this economic decline, member states of European Union mark up deficit calculation more than limitation of European Union, 3 percent of  Gross Domestic Income every country. European make that rule to keep economy of European Union Countries stable and maintain stability of Euro.[5] Its inflation influence money currencies in the other country especially which make relation and cooperation with European Union. Even though this problem has not been finished but overall European Union is a system which ally policy which is purposed to strengthen and integrate member states economy, social and law.

Nowadays European Union is not only ordinary economy entity, but also superpower global economy.[6] For joining European Union, a country must have stable democracy which assure of law supremacy. That country must also have functional economic trade and public administration which can apply and manage constitution of European Union. In monetary aspect European Union is supported by European monetary inspector agency, social economy committee, and European Investment Bank.

Citizens of EU

            The term of EU citizens is officially recognized in 1992 by the signed of Maastricht Treaty. According to the amended Treaties of Rome, article 17 (1), the EU citizens are those people who live in all EU’s member states. As the other citizens of state , citizens of EU also got their rights but also have to obey the Community law. So in this case, they not only live under their state’s ruling, but also the EU’s ruling.

            Several rights as an EU citizens are mentioned in amended European Community treaty, those are: the right not to be discriminated against on grounds of nationality, the right of free movement and residence throughout the Union and to apply work in any position, the right to vote and the right to stand in local in any member states, the right to protection by the diplomatic or consular authorities of other member states when in a non-EU member state, the right to petition the European Parliament, the right to apply the community institution, the right of access to European Parliament, Council, and Commission documents.

            However, in this case the problem of disparity still appear between the people of Western Europe and Eastern Europe, in which the Western people seems can get totally benefits from those rights of being an EU’s citizen. While the poor one, which refers to people of Eastern Europe get less.

Justice

            The court of Justice is one of the older body of EU. It was established under the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952 and based in Luxemburg. This body usually also called as ‘the Court’. The Court’s main purpose is to make sure that EU legislation is interpreted and applied in the same way in all EU countries, so that the law is equal for everyone. It ensures, for example, that national courts do not give different rulings on the same issue.

The Court consists of one judge per member state so that all member states are represented by one judge. Beside the judge, the works in the Court also assisted by eight advocates-general. Each of the judge and advocate general is appointed for a term of six years.

            Here are some cases that may to be resolved by the Court, those are:

1. references for a preliminary ruling;
2. actions for failure to fulfill an obligation;
3. actions for annulment;
4. actions for failure to act;
5. actions for damages.

References

Baldwin, Richard and Charles Wyplosz.  The Economics of European Integration: 2nd Edition. McGraw Hill

http://www.voanews.com/ accessed 10 November 2009

http://www.delidn.ec.europa.eu/en/special/bluebook/BB07-ID1.pdf accessed 10 November 2009

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[1] Richard Baldwin and Charles Wyplosz.  The Economics of European Integration: 2nd Edition. McGraw Hill

[2] Ibid. Baldwin

[3] Opcit Baldwin

[4] http://www.voanews.com/ accessed 10 November 2009

[5] Opcit Baldwin

[6] http://www.delidn.ec.europa.eu/en/special/bluebook/BB07-ID1.pdf accessed 10 November 2009

HISTORY AND POLITIC OF ITALY

 

Italy which is well known by pizza and spaghetti is located in the Italian Peninsula. This country is cradle of many cultures and politically Italy is a democratic republic and a developed country with the eighth-highest quality of life index rating in the world at once.[1] It is one of European Union founding member and having signed the Treaty of Rome in 1957, Italy also member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), G8, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), WTO, the Council of Europe, the Western European Union, and the Central European Initiative.[2]

At the end of 2008, the Italian population surpassed 60 million and become the fourth-largest population in the European Union and the 23rd-largest population worldwide.[3] After World War II, Italy enjoyed a prolonged economic boom which caused a major rural exodus to the cities, and at the same time transformed the nation from a massive emigration country to a net immigrant-receiving country.[4] High fertility persisted until the 1970s, when it plunged below the replacement rates, so that as of 2008, one in five Italians was over 65 years old. Fortunately, the massive immigration of the last two decades, in the 2000s the total fertility rate also significantly grew in the past few years.

Republic system of Italy has own long history. It became republic after referendum held on 2 June 1946. The Republican Constitution was approved and came into force on 1 January 1948.[5] Under the Paris Peace Treaties of 1947, the eastern border area was lost toYugoslavia, and, later, the free territory of Trieste was divided between the two states. Fears in the Italian electorate of a possible Communist take over proved crucial for the first universal suffrage electoral outcome on the 18th of April 1948 when the Christian Democrats, under the leadership of Alcide De Gasperi, won the election with 48 percent of the vote.[6] In the 1950s Italy became a member of  NATO and allied itself with the United States. The Marshall Plan helped revive the Italian economy which, until the 1960s, enjoyed a period of sustained economic growth commonly called the "Economic Miracle".[7] In 1957, Italy was a founder member of the European Economic Community (EEC), which became the European Union (EU) in 1993.[8]

From 1960 to 2009, Italy ever faced decline of political culture. Italy, which has chief of state and prime minister as executive branch, bicameral parliament system as legislative branch, and Constitutional Court as judicial branch, loss people’s politic and social trust because of they had little confidence in the efficiency and integrity of institutions and officials. Italians also tend to seek protection from informal group as influence of their distrust but they have good sense of national identity after two world wars and German occupation.[9] Generally root of this problems are decline of Catholic tradition and strength because communism influence, many demonstrations and leader initiations as influence of early democracy implementation  and corruption scandal in the government. When clean hands operation is conducted, many political elite, former prime minister, and thousands businessmen is involved.

Even though political crisis of Italy is going on until now, but the most important thing of political culture is heterogeneity and fragmentation of subcultures, like diversity of mass and elite, northern and southern, liberal, clerical or Marxist- which have helped shape and determined Italy’s party system until now.[10]

From many leader commutation, Silvio Berlusconi is sensational and lucky minister because he has elected three times even though often make scandals and tell controversial statements. [11]  In 2001, national elections led to the victory of a centre-right coalition under the leadership of Silvio Berlusconi, who became prime minister once again. Mr. Berlusconi was able to remain in power for a complete five-year mandate, but with two different governments. The first one (2001–2005) became the longest-lived government in post-war Italy. Under that government, Italy joined the US-led military coalition in Iraq. The elections in 2006 were won by the centre-left, allowing Prodi to form his second government, but in early 2008 he resigned after losing a confidence vote in Parliament. Mr. Berlusconi won the ensuing elections in April 2008 to form a government for a third time.

During Berlusconi’s government, Italian position in European Union (EU) is not strategic because bad profile of Berlusconi which can not solve Italian internal political problem like garbage processing and political reformation which is stopped for sixty years. Berlusconi ever also insult Germanian leader when Italy become presidency of EU and skeptic to euro which become single and common currency, whereas Italy is one of six countries which signed of Paris treaty which manage of European union integration. Berlusconi precisely close with United States (US) than France and Germany which have became old allied.[12] Unfortunately, Berlusconi’s foreign policy is not supported by his foreign minister which finally resign because ever under estimated which concerned about Berlusconi’s rejection of extradition treaty in whole of Europe and airbus military defence project as common defence policy.[13]

From the description above, The writer can make conclusion that Italy has to make political and cultural reformation, because learning from history and nowadays reality point out that Italy undergoes political social distrust from their society and it is dangerous for Italian internal condition to settled survive in globalization dynamic competition without regionalism support, I mean EU. So that Berlusconi must adjust himself and be wise leader if he still want to be supported by his fanatic supporter and his allied.

Acknowledgement

Artikel ”kemandegan” reformasi Italia diakses melalui http://www.kompas.com pada 3 Oktober 2009

Artikel  The context of Italian Politics

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fp.html

The Economist. 2005. The Economist Intelligence Unit’s quality-of-life index

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[1] The Economist. 2005. The Economist Intelligence Unit’s quality-of-life index

[2] https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fp.html

[3] Ibid. cia

[4] Op cit. cia

[5] Op cit cia

[6] Artikel  The context of Italian Politics

[7] Ibid. The context of Italian Politics

[8] Hine, David. Italy

[9] Op cit The context of Italian Politics

[10] Op cit The context of Italian Politics

[11] Artikel ”kemandegan” reformasi Italia diakses melalui http://www.kompas.com pada 3 Oktober 2009

[12] Ibid kompas

[13] Op cit Kompas